Vaisheshika, (Sanskrit: “Particular”) one of the six systems
(darshans) of Indian philosophy, significant for its naturalism, a feature that is not characteristic of
most Indian thought. The Sanskrit philosopher Kanada Kashyapa
(2nd–3rd century CE?) expounded its theories and is credited with
founding the school. Important later commentaries were written by
Prashastapada, Udayanacharya, and Shridhara.
After a period of independence, the Vaisheshika school fused
entirely with the Nyaya school, a process that was
completed in the 11th century. Thereafter the combined school was referred to
as Nyaya-Vaisheshika.
The Vaisheshika school attempts to identify, inventory, and
classify the entities and their relations that present themselves to human
perceptions. It lists six categories of being (padarthas), to which was
later added a seventh. These are:
1. Dravya, or substance, the substratum that exists independently of
all other categories, and the material cause of all compound things produced from it. Dravyas
are nine in number: earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, spirit, and mind.
4. Samanya, or genus, which denotes characteristic similarities that allow two
or more objects to be classed together.
5. Vishesha, or specific difference, which singles out an individual of that
class.
6. Samavaya, or inherence, which indicates things inseparably connected.
To these six was later added abhava, nonexistence or
absence. Though negative in content, the impression it makes is positive; one
has a perception of an absence where one misses something.
Four such absences are recognized: previous absence, as of a new product; later
absence, as of a destroyed object; total absence, as of colour in the wind;
and reciprocal absence, as of a jar and a cloth, neither
of which is the other.
The Vaisheshika system holds that the smallest, indivisible,
indestructible part of the world is an atom(anu). All physical things are a combination of the atoms
of earth, water, fire, and air. Inactive and motionless in themselves, the
atoms are put into motion by God’s will, through the unseen forces of moral merit and demerit.
Basic Tenets of the
Nyaya and Vaisheshika Schools
Origins
The Vaisheshika (bye-brag-pa)
school of Indian philosophy bases itself on The Sutra of Particulars (Skt. Vaisheshika
Sutra) by the sage Kanadi (Drang-srong gZegs-zan), as commented
on in the 5th century CE by Prashastapada. The slightly later Nyaya (rigs-can-pa)
school bases itself on The Logic Sutra (Skt. Nyaya
Sutra) by Gautama – also known as the brahmin Akshapada (Bram-ze
rKang-mig) – as commented on in the 4th century CE by Vatsyayana.
The Vaisheshika and
Nyaya schools share many features in common. Vaisheshika emphasizes the types
of entities that exist; Nyaya emphasizes the types of entities involved in
cognizing and proving the existence of those entities. Just as Samkhya asserts
25 classes of phenomena of knowable phenomena, Vaisheshika asserts six types of
entities (tshig-gi don, Skt. padartha), with a seventh,
negation phenomena, added later. Nyaya asserts sixteen.
The term translated as
“type of entity” literally means “the referent object of a word” and all
members of this classification scheme have true findable existence as what the
words for them refer to. They are explained as the causes for being able to
affix the words and concepts for them. Thus, in this sense, they all perform a
function, although some are static, unaffected phenomena. They are also all
self-sufficiently existent, in the sense that they do not depend on other
phenomena in order to be truly existent distinct things, although they might
not exist separately on their own. Certain of the types of entities serve as
the support for other entities such as qualities, and serve as the causes for
certain invariable relationships being inherent in them.
List of
the Types of Entities
For Vaisheshika, the seven
types of entities are:
(1) Basic things (rdzas,
Skt. dravya)
(2) Qualities (yon-tan,
Skt. guna)
(3) Activities (las,
Skt. karma)
(4) Categories or
universals (spyi, Skt. samanya)
(5) Particularities or
individualities (bye-brag, Skt. vishesha)
(6) Inherent,
invariable relationships (‘du-ba, Skt. samavaya)
(7) Non-existences (ma-yin-pa,
Skt. abhava).
For Nyaya, the sixteen
types of entities are
(1) Valid ways of
cognizing things (tshad-ma. Skt. pramana)
(2) Validly
comprehensible objects (gzhal-bya, Skt. prameya) –
comprising the original six Vaisheshika types of entities
(3) Doubt (the-tshom,
Skt. samsaya)
(4) Purposes or aims of
proofs (dgos-pa, Skt. prayojana)
(5) Examples used in
proofs (dpe, Skt. drstanta)
(6) Established
conclusions of proofs (grub-mtha’, Skt. siddhanta)
(7) Members of
syllogisms in logic (yan-lag, Skt. avayava)
(8) Logic (rtog-ge,
Skt. tarka) – for analyzing hypotheses
(9) Decisive
settlements of logical disputes (gtan-phabs, Skt. nirnaya)
(10) Debates (rtsod-pa,
Skt. vada) – in order to discover the truth
(11) Disputation (brjod-pa,
Skt. jalpa) – constructive or destructive argumentation aimed
merely for victory
(12) Angry objections (sun-‘byin,
Skt. vitanda) – destructive argumentation
(13) Fallacies in
syllogisms (gtan-tshigs ltar-snang-ba, Skt. hetvabhasa)
(14) Quibbling (tshig-dor,
Skt. cala) – deceptive tricks used in logic
(15) Specious and
unavailing objections (ltag-chod, Skt. jati)
(16) Vulnerable
standpoints (tshar-gcod-pa’i gnas, Skt. nighrahasthana)
– occasions for appealing a logical proof.
Let us look only at the
types of entities accepted in common by both systems, the original Vaisheshika
six, plus the Vaisheshika seventh.
The Nine
Kinds of Basic Things
There are nine kinds of
basic things. They are bases for qualities and activities and are connected
with these qualities and activities by the various types of relationships,
somewhat like two balls connected by sticks:
(1) Earth (sa,
Skt. prthivi)
(2) Water (chu,
Skt. ap)
(3) Fire (me,
Skt. tejas)
(4) Wind or air (rlung,
Skt. vayu). These four refer to partless, eternal material
particles (Skt. paramanu). As individual items they do not have
time and location, only grosser material objects composed from them have time
and location.
(5) Space (nam-mkha’,
Skt. akasha). Space is immaterial, partless, infinite,
all-pervasive, and not composed of particles.
(6) Time (dus,
Skt. kala)
(7) Location (phyogs,
Skt. dik). Time and location are all-pervasive objective
realities and are simply measures.
(8) Souls (bdag,
Skt. atman) or persons (skyes-bu, Skt. purusha)
or individual beings (gang-zag, Skt. pudgala). Souls are
multiple in number, and each is all-pervasive and eternal. By themselves, they
lack consciousness.
(9) Physical minds (yid,
Skt. manas). A physical mind, like earth, water, fire, and wind,
is a type of material particle, but in this case, a material particle of
awareness (sems-pa, Skt. cetana). In other words,
awareness is something physical. It relates persons to the external world and
does so through concepts. Thus, physical mind particles are always conceptual
awarenesses.
The 24
Qualities
There are 24 qualities,
which refer to particular qualities of particular basic things. Each pertains
to one or more basic things. None of them can exist independently on its own,
although each is distinct.
The 24 include various
types of:
(1) Color and shape (gzugs,
Skt. rupa)
(2) Taste (ro,
Skt. rasa)
(3) Smell (dri,
Skt. gandha)
(4) Tactile sensation (reg-pa,
Skt. sparsha)
(5) Sound (sgra,
Skt. shabda).
Various levels of:
(6) Weight (lci-ba,
Skt. gurutva)
(7) Viscosity or
liquidity (gsher-ba, Skt. dravatva)
(8) Oiliness (snum-pa,
Skt. sneha).
Various types or
instances of:
(9) Number (grangs,
Skt. samkhya)
(10) Dimension or size
(tshad, Skt. parimanu)
(11) Distinctiveness (so-sor,
Skt. prthaktva) – individuality on the side of objects, not only
making one vase distinct another, but a vase distinct from a pillar
(12) Conjunction,
conglomeration (sbyor-ba, Skt. samyoga) or possession (ldan-pa).
Conjunction or possession of qualities or activities and conglomeration of
particles are dependent on causes and conditions. Because they are contingent,
they are not invariable; they are fleeting.
(13) Disjunction (rnam-par
dbye-ba, Skt. vibhaga) – separation from being a contingent conglomerate
or from contingently possessing something
(14) Proximity (gzhan-pa-nyid,
Skt. paratva) – in space or time
(15) Non-proximity (gzhan
ma-yin-pa-nyid, Skt. aparatva) – in space or time
Various types or levels of:
(16) Sensory awareness
(blo, Skt. buddhi) or perceiving (shes-pa,
Skt. jnana), referring to the five types of sense consciousness
(17) Happiness (bde-ba,
Skt. sukha)
(18) Unhappiness or
suffering (sdug-bsngal, Skt. duhkha)
(19) Desire or wish for
something (‘dod-pa, Skt. iccha)
(20) Aversion from
something (sdang-ba, Skt. dvesha)
(21) Effort or endeavor
(‘bad-pa, Skt. yatna)
(22) Affecting
variables (‘dus-byas, Skt. samskara), which include (a)
physical momentum (shugs), produced from effort exerted by a physical
mind particle on earth, water, fire, and wind particles, (b) habits (bag-chags),
produced by a moment of consciousness and capable of producing a future moment
of consciousness, and (c) reversion of state (gnas-pa ‘jig-pa), the
reversion of something material to its former state, such as an unfolded leaf,
that was previously folded, automatically folding again.
(23) Moral force (chos,
Skt. dharma) that produces happiness as its not-yet-seen result
(24) Immoral force (chos
ma-yin-pa, Skt. adharma) that produces unhappiness and suffering
as its not-yet-seen result.
In the Tibetan
formulation, the last two qualities are counted together as one, called
“not-yet-seen” (Skt. adrshta) – the karmic force for producing
happiness or unhappiness as its not-yet-seen result. It then adds to the list
temperature (dro-ba).
Souls and
Their Nine Contingent Qualities
The nine qualities
contingently associated with a soul or person are:
(1) Sensory awareness
or perceiving
(2) Happiness
(3) Unhappiness
(4) Desire or wish for
something
(5) Aversion from something
(6) Effort or endeavor
(7) Affecting
variables, namely habits
(8) Moral force for
not-yet-seen happiness
(9) Immoral force for
not-yet-seen unhappiness and suffering.
A soul is a basic
thing, though nonmaterial. It is the basis for a relationship of contingent
possession of these nine qualities. It is an objective entity different from
the body (made of material particles), sensors (light-sensors, sound-sensors,
and so on, made of derivative material particles), and physical mind particles
(awareness). By nature, a soul or person does not have any of these nine
properties, and liberation is gained by realizing that it is totally without
them.
Because, by nature, a
soul does not have the quality of sensory awareness or perceiving, it only
knows objects through physical mind particles, which are the instrument for
sensory awareness. Thus, souls are distinct entities from mind particles, as
well as distinct entities from activities; although conventionally, souls or
persons are the experiencers of happiness and unhappiness and the agents of
activities.
There are a manifold
number of souls, and each is partless, eternal, and static, unaffected by
anything. According to Vaisheshika, each soul is all-pervasive; while according
to Nyaya, each soul is the size of a minute particle. According to the texts of
Kunkyen Jamyang-zheypa (Kun-mkhyen ‘Jam-dbyangs bzhed-pa Ngag-dbang
brston-‘grus), although Nyaya asserts that the soul that has the
relationship of contingent conjunction or disjunction with a physical mind
particle is the size of a particle; nevertheless, Nyaya accepts that, in
general, each soul is all-pervasive.
The aim of the
spiritual path is to attain liberation, referred to as “total divestment”
(Skt. apavarga), by realizing that, by nature, the soul does not
have the nine properties and is not invariably associated with physical mind
particles (awareness) or activities. In a state of total divestment, a soul,
therefore, does not experience happiness or suffering, since it is without
awareness; and it does not do anything. The path for attaining total divestment
entails not only realizing the nature of one’s soul, but also ethical practices
such as fasting, ablution, and celibacy (tshangs-spyod, Skt. brahmacharya)
while living in the home of one’s spiritual teacher.
There are both
individual living souls (Skt. jivatman) and a single, supreme,
all-pervasive, partless, eternal, static soul (Skt. paramatma),
which is the creator god Ishvara (Shiva). Although Ishvara is not mentioned in
the oldest texts of the two traditions, by Kanadi and Gautama, he is discussed
in their commentaries by Prashastapada and Vatsyayana. Unlike the Yoga
formulation of Ishvara, however, according to Nyaya and Vaisheshika, everything
that happens in the universe derives from the will of Ishvara.
The Five
Types of Activities
The five types of
activities are:
(1) Lifting up (‘degs-pa)
(2) Putting down (‘jog-pa)
(3) Contraction (brkyang-pa)
(4) Extension (bskum-pa)
(5) Going (‘gro-ba).
Categories
or Universals
Categories or
universals are the appearing objects of conceptual cognitions. They can only be
known through cognizing individual particular items and are the same in each
particular item. Categories do not exist within particular items; but rather,
particular items are the indicators or revealers (Skt. vyanjaka)
of categories.
Categories are of two
types:
(1) The all-pervading
category (khyab-pa’i spyi, Skt. sarvasarvagata). This
refers to the category objective existence (yod-pa-nyid).
Out of the seven types of entities, it pertains only to the basic things,
qualities and activities. It does not apply to categories, particularities,
inherent invariable relationships, or types of non-existence. This twofold
division of the seven types of entities is similar to the Buddhist Sautrantika
division of objective entities (rang-mtshan) and metaphysical entities
(spyi-mtshan). In both Nyaya-Vaishashika and Sautrantika, both groups
of phenomena have truly established existence, though only the first group is
objectively “real.”
(2) Specific categories
(nyi-tshe-ba’i spyi, Skt. vyaktisarvagata). These apply
only to some items, such as the category of “table” applying only to all
tables.
Particularities
or Individualities
Particularities or
individualities are what are apprehended by a conceptual cognition when
cognizing two distinct or individual objects that would otherwise be alike,
either in terms of the all-pervading category of being objectively existent
(such as with a vase and a pillar) or in terms of a specific category, for
instance, of being a table (such as with two tables).
The Five
Types of Inherent, Invariable Relationships
There are five types of
inherent, invariable relationships: the relationships between
(1) Basic things (other
than souls) and properties
(2) Basic things (other
than souls) and activities
(3) Particular items
and categories
(4) Ultimate substances
(referring to partless particles of earth, water, fire, wind, and physical
minds) and particular items made of their contingent conglomerations
(5) A whole and its
parts, such as a body and its limbs, or inherently abiding material causes
(Skt. samavayikarana) and their products, such as clay and a clay
pot made of it.
These five pairs always
come together.
The Four
Types of Non-existence
There are four types of
non-existence:
(1) Antecedent
non-existence (Skt. pragabhava) – for instance the non-existence
of a vase before it is made
(2) Perished
non-existence (Skt. pradhvamsabhava) – for instance the
non-existence of a vase after it has perished
(3) Mutual
non-existence (Skt. anyonyabhava) – mutual exclusion, such as the
non-existence of a vase being a pillar and a pillar being a vase.
(4) Eternal
non-existence (Skt. atyantabhava) – the absolute non-existence of
something that never has, never will, and never can presently exist. According
to some explanations, this type of non-existence refers to the total absence of
an object in locations other than where it presently is.
Thank You.
Debashis
Vaisesika philosophy: An Introduction
Reviewed by GYAN MANDIR
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3:51 AM
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Reviewed by GYAN MANDIR
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